Samples, Power Analysis, and Design Sensitivity Statistics Project

Samples, Power Analysis, and Design Sensitivity - Statistics Project Example A research that lacks either form of validity communicates possible deviations from actual properties of the research subjects and can therefore not be relied upon. Both external and internal validities are also susceptible to threats that must be monitored for a desired level of accuracy. The two forms of validities are therefore important in developing confidence in drawn conclusions and made inferences from a research initiative. They are however different in their specific scopes of applicability, and their threats. Internal validity for instance defines a research process’ independence from confounds that may influence observations contrary to the treatment’s causal effects while external validity defines the degree of confidence in inferring research results to a population. Another difference between internal and external validity is their sets of threats. Threats to internal validity such as â€Å"maturation,† â€Å"selection,† â€Å"instrumentati on,† â€Å"statistical regression,† and â€Å"attrition† induces bias on the causal effect relationship to impair accuracy of observation on treatment effect. Threats to external validity however include â€Å"reactive effects of testing,† â€Å"interactive effect of selection,† â€Å"reactive effect of innovation† and â€Å"multiple program interface† and induces barriers between properties of the used sample and other population segments (Fink, 2004, 78, 79). Research questions to which external validity is of primary concern are those questions that seek to establish relationships that are generally applicable to an entire population. Example is a research question to establish the relationship between gender and students performance in sciences that is psychologically hypothesized to be uniform across populations. Internal validity, however, is primary to research questions that seek to establish existence of a relationship between two

Air pollution Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Air pollution - Research Paper Example In this manner, the large particles emitted to the atmosphere settle on the ground, while the small particles are carried by the wind. Air pollution does not only damage the environment, but it also affects the health of the individuals in terms of skin and eyes irritation, and respiratory illness. Air pollution has been a concern of almost every individual in the world, and many are exerting effort in order to enact laws or individual awareness to end air pollution (â€Å"Air Pollution†). 3.0 Types of Air Pollution 3.1 Indoor Air pollution Air pollution occurs inside the houses, offices, schools, and other enclosed areas. Air pollutants indoor usually comes from cigarette or tobacco smoking, gases that come from stoves while cooking, chemicals, glue, and paint used in the building, and other hazardous fumes secreted by the materials of the building, and radon. Radon is considered as a radioactive gas which is emitted by decaying uranium rocks on the ground. Radon can easily b e trapped in structures that are energy-efficient where hot or cool air is kept inside. Therefore, due to this high concentration of gases inside the structure, radon can easily be trapped inside and can cause harm to the people inside the building. Nonetheless, the ventilation of the structure also plays a vital role in contributing to indoor air pollution (Thakur 68). 3.2 Outdoor Air Pollution Outdoor pollution occurs when the air pollutants from the burning of gases by vehicles, power and business plants, burning of garbage are formed into gases and particles which then emitted to the atmosphere. Some of these activities emit lead and mercury, which are considered as heavy metals, which then result to the formation of smog. Smog is a result of the reaction gasoline and petroleum combustion to sunlight. This reaction then forms a brown-colored smoke that also results to the creation of different harmful gases. From these different gases, ozone is also formed, which is a harmful ty pe of oxygen. Aside from smog, acid rain is also caused by air pollution. This occurs when nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide reacts with water vapor, which results to the production of nitric and sulfuric acid. The most common sources of nitrogen oxide and sulfur dioxide are burning gas and oil by cars and factories (Thakur 68-69). 4.1 Effects of Air Pollution 4.1 Effects of Indoor Air Pollution Indoor air pollution can cause eye irritation, headache, skin irritation, and other health problems. Aside from this, if radon is inhaled in large amount, the person can also suffer from lung cancer. Sick building syndrome (SBS) can also occur if the air quality in a building is poor or low. SBS can elicit symptoms such as chills and fever, congestion of the chest, throat irritation, dry skin, and dizziness. These symptoms are not specific; therefore, these symptoms can also be caused by other ailments. However, an employee must seek an attention of a physician if the symptoms worsen during working shifts or hours and deteriorate after the shift of an employee (Thakur 68; Austin, Brimblecombe, and Sturges 90). 4.2 Effects of Outdoor Air Pollution Outdoor air pollution affects human beings and the environment. The short term effects of air pollution include pneumonia, irritation of the nose, skin, throat, and eyes, nausea, and headaches. Aside from this unpleasant odor from factories, garbage, clogged drainage systems also cause air pollution. On the other hand, the long-term